文件名称：Introduction to Communication Electronic Warfare Systems.pdf
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Communication Electronic Warfare
Contents Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv Chapter 1 Communication Electronic Warfare Systems 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Information Warfare 1 1.3 Electronic Warfare 3 1.3.1 Electronic Support 3 1.3.2 Electronic Attack 4 1.3.3 Electronic Protect 4 1.4 Electronic Support 5 1.4.1 Low Probability of Detection/Interception/Exploitation 7 1.4.2 Future Communication Environments 8 1.4.3 Wired Communications 9 1.4.4 ES Summary 9 1.5 Electronic Attack 10 1.5.1 EA Summary 11 1.6 Typical EW System Configuration 11 1.6.1 System Control 11 1.6.2 Antennas 12 1.6.3 Signal Distribution 13 1.6.4 Search Receiver 13 1.6.5 Set-On Receiver 13 1.6.6 Signal Processing 14 1.6.7 Direction-Finding Signal Processing 14 1.6.8 Exciter 14 1.6.9 Power Amplifier 15 1.6.10 Filters 15 1.6.11 Communications 15 1.7 Concluding Remarks 16 References 16 Chapter 2 Electromagnetic Signal Propagation 19 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Signal Propagation 19 2.3 RF Band Designations 20 vi Introduction to Communication Electronic Warfare Systems 2.4 Polarization 22 2.5 Power Density 22 2.6 Free-Space Propagation 24 2.7 Direct Wave 27 2.8 Wave Diffraction 33 2.9 Reflected Waves 35 2.10 Surface Wave 40 2.11 Ducting 41 2.12 Meteor Burst 41 2.13 Scattering 42 2.14 Characteristics of the Mobile VHF Channel 43 2.15 Propagation Via the Ionosphere 46 2.15.1 Ionospheric Layers 46 2.15.2 Refraction 48 2.15.3 Near-Vertical Incidence Sky Wave 50 2.15.4 HF Fading 50 2.15.5 Maximum Usable Frequency and Lowest Usable Frequency 51 2.15.6 Automatic Link Establishment 52 2.16 Concluding Remarks 52 References 53 Chapter 3 Noise and Interference 55 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 Thermal Noise 56 3.3 Internal Noise Sources 56 3.4 External Noise Sources 57 3.5 Cochannel and Multipath Interference 59 3.6 Concluding Remarks 60 References 60 Chapter 4 Radio Communication Technologies 61 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Modulation 63 4.2.1 Amplitude Modulation 65 4.2.2 Angle Modulation 67 4.2.3 Orthogonal Signaling 71 4.2.4 Access Methods 73 4.2.5 Duplexing 77 4.2.6 Digital Signaling 78 4.2.7 Spread Spectrum 97 Contents vii 4.3 Coding of Communication Signals 110 4.3.1 Source Coding for Data Compression 110 4.3.2 Channel Coding for Error Control 115 4.4 Modems 134 4.5 Facsimile 140 4.6 Communication Security 140 4.6.1 Data Encryption 141 4.6.2 Public Key Encryption 141 4.6.3 Digital Signatures 142 4.6.4 Data Encryption Standard 144 4.6.5 Pretty Good Privacy 145 4.6.6 Fortezza Encryption System 146 4.6.7 Escrow Encryption System 147 4.6.8 Over-the-Air Rekeying 148 4.7 Concluding Remarks 148 References 149 Chapter 5 System Engineering 151 5.1 Introduction 151 5.2 System Engineering 151 5.2.1 Performance Characteristics 155 5.2.2 Environmental Characteristics 155 5.2.3 Reliability and Availability 160 5.2.4 Human-Factors Engineering 171 5.2.5 System Cost 174 5.3 Concluding Remarks 175 References 176 Chapter 6 Electronic Support 177 6.1 Introduction 177 6.2 Intercept 177 6.2.1 Internals Versus Externals 178 6.2.2 Propagation Loss 178 6.3 Geolocation 179 6.4 Triangulation with Multiple Bearings 180 6.5 Deployment Considerations 184 6.6 Electronic Mapping 185 6.7 Common Operational Picture 185 6.8 Operational Integration with Other Disciplines 186 6.9 Support to Targeting 187 6.10 Concluding Remarks 187 References 187 viii Introduction to Communication Electronic Warfare Systems Chapter 7 Electronic Attack 189 7.1 Introduction 189 7.2 Communication Jamming 189 7.3 Jammer Deployment 193 7.4 Look-Through 194 7.5 Analog Communications 195 7.6 Digital Communications 196 7.7 Narrowband/Partial-Band Jamming 197 7.8 Barrage Jamming 198 7.9 Jamming LPI Targets 201 7.10 Follower Jammer 202 7.11 Concluding Remarks 203 References 203 Chapter 8 Antennas 207 8.1 Introduction 207 8.2 Isotropic Antenna 209 8.3 Antenna Gain 210 8.4 Wire Antennas 211 8.4.1 Dipole 212 8.4.2 Monopole 214 8.4.3 Loop 215 8.4.4 Biconical/Discone 215 8.4.5 Yagi 216 8.4.6 Log Periodic 216 8.4.7 Helix Antennas 218 8.4.8 Spiral Antennas 220 8.5 Active Antennas 220 8.6 Aperture Antennas 222 8.6.1 Parabolic Dish 222 8.6.2 Antenna Arrays 223 8.7 Genetically Designed Antennas 225 8.8 More on Antenna Gain 226 8.9 Concluding Remarks 228 References 228 Chapter 9 Receivers 231 9.1 Introduction 231 9.2 Receivers 232 9.2.1 RF Amplification and Filtering 234 9.2.2 Sensitivity 236 Contents ix 9.2.3 Dynamic Range 237 9.2.4 Mixing/Frequency Conversion 240 9.2.5 Intermediate Frequency Filtering and Amplification 241 9.2.6 Detection/Demodulation 242 9.3 Types of Receivers 246 9.3.1 Narrowband Receivers 246 9.3.2 Wideband Receivers 250 9.4 Concluding Remarks 263 References 264 Chapter 10 Signal Processing 265 10.1 Introduction 265 10.2 Orthogonal Functions 266 10.3 Transforms 267 10.3.1 Trigonometric Transforms 268 10.3.2 Haar Transform 274 10.3.3 Wavelet Transforms 276 10.3.4 Fast Transforms 285 10.4 Cyclostationary Signal Processing 286 10.5 Higher-Order Statistics 289 10.6 Applications 291 10.6.1 Signal Detection 291 10.6.2 Signal Classification 302 10.6.3 Recognition/Identification 317 10.8 Concluding Remarks 328 References 329 Chapter 11 Direction-Finding Position-Fixing Techniques 331 11.1 Introduction 331 11.2 Bearing Estimation 331 11.2.1 Circular Antenna Array 332 11.2.2 Interferometry 333 11.2.3 Monopulse Direction Finder 347 11.2.4 Amplitude Direction Finding 352 11.2.5 Doppler Direction Finder 359 11.2.6 Array-Processing Bearing Estimation 362 11.2.7 Line-of-Bearing Optimization 375 11.3 Position-Fixing Algorithms 379 11.3.1 Eliminating Wild Bearings 380 11.3.2 Stansfield Fix Algorithm 381 11.3.3 Mean-Squared Distance Algorithm 384 x Introduction to Communication Electronic Warfare Systems 11.3.4 Combining Error Contours 388 11.4 Single-Site Location Techniques 391 11.5 Fix Accuracy 392 11.6 Fix Coverage 396 11.7 Concluding Remarks 399 References 401 Chapter 12 Hyperbolic Position-Fixing Techniques 403 12.1 Introduction 403 12.2 Time Difference of Arrival 403 12.3 Differential Doppler 410 12.4 Cross Ambiguity Function Processing 414 12.4.1 Position Fix Accuracy 416 12.5 Time of Arrival 418 12.6 Concluding Remarks 422 References 422 Chapter 13 Exciters and Power Amplifiers 425 13.1 Introduction 425 13.2 Exciters 425 13.2.1 Oscillators 426 13.2.2 Synthesizer 428 13.2.3 Modulator 429 13.3 Power Amplifiers 431 13.3.1 Amplifier Operating Characteristics 431 13.3.2 Efficiency 433 13.3.3 Push-Pull Architecture 434 13.3.4 Classes of Amplifiers 435 13.3.5 Switching Architectures 438 13.3.6 Amplifier Linearization 444 13.3.7 Basic Power Modules 445 13.3.8 Combiners 448 13.3.9 Output Filters 449 13.3.10 Noise-Power Ratio 450 13.4 Concluding Remarks 451 References 451 Chapter 14 Early-Entry Organic Electronic Support 453 14.1 Introduction 453 14.2 Target Model 454 14.3 Intercept System Model 455 Contents xi 14.4 Simulation Results 459 14.4.1 Performance Versus the Number of Target Nets 460 14.4.2 Search Bandwidth 462 14.4.3 Noise Factor 464 14.4.4 Postprocessing Time 466 14.4.5 Mission Duration 467 14.5 Concluding Remarks 469 References 471 Chapter 15 Detection and Geolocation of Frequency-Hopping Communication Emitters 473 15.1 Introduction 473 15.2 Analysis 473 15.3 Simulation 476 15.3.1 ES System Operation 478 15.3.2 Results and Analysis 481 15.3.3 Discussion 484 15.4 Concluding Remarks 486 References 486 Chapter 16 Signal Detection Range 487 16.1 Introduction 487 16.2 Noise Limits on Detection Range 490 16.3 Targets 491 16.4 Detection Range with the Reflection Propagation Model 491 16.4.1 Airborne Configurations of ES Systems 492 16.4.2 Ground-Based Detection Ranges 497 16.4.3 Discussion 499 16.5 Concluding Remarks 501 References 503 Chapter 17 Electronic Attack: UAV and Ground-Based 505 17.1 Introduction 505 17.2 Signal Propagation at Long Ranges 506 17.3 Jamming ERP 507 17.4 Targets 508 17.5 RLOS 508 17.6 UAV Jammer 509 17.7 Ground-Based Jammer 511 17.8 Expendable Jammer 513 17.9 Concluding Remarks 514 References 516 xii Introduction to Communication Electronic Warfare Systems Appendix A Probability and Random Variables 517 A.1 Introduction 517 A.2 Means, Expected Values, and Moment Functions of Random Variables 517 A.3 Probability 520 A.3.1 Conditional Probability 521 A.3.2 Random Variable Distribution and Density Functions 522 A.4 Gaussian Density Function 525 A.5 Kurtosis 527 A.6 Skewness 527 A.7 Useful Characteristics of Probabilities, Density Functions, and Distribution Functions 528 A.8 Concluding Remarks 528 Reference 528 Appendix B Simulated Networks 529 B.1 Introduction 529 List of Acronyms 539 About the Author 545 Index 547